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  <teiHeader>
    <fileDesc>
      <titleStmt>
        <title type="main">Wurdahuzdą: Proto-Germanic dictionary — *ak</title>
        <author>Scott K. Shay</author>
      </titleStmt>
      <publicationStmt>
        <publisher>Wardja Press</publisher>
        <date when="2026-10-01"/>
        <idno type="URL">https://protogermanic.org/pgmc_ak</idno>
      </publicationStmt>
      <sourceDesc>
        <p>Single-entry extract from the dictionary. Cross-references to other entries point to their identifiers in the full dictionary.</p>
      </sourceDesc>
    </fileDesc>
  </teiHeader>
  <text>
    <body>
      <listBibl>
        <biblStruct xmlns="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0" type="book" xml:id="dunkel2014" corresp="http://zotero.org/users/21108209/items/Q3YHENC7">
          <monogr>
            <title level="m">Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme</title>
            <author>
              <forename>George E.</forename>
              <surname>Dunkel</surname>
            </author>
            <imprint>
              <publisher>Universitätsverlag Winter</publisher>
              <biblScope unit="volume">2</biblScope>
              <date>2014</date>
            </imprint>
          </monogr>
        </biblStruct>
      </listBibl>
      <list type="cognates">
        <item xml:id="cog_ave_at" xml:lang="ave" type="cognate">
          <orth>𐬀𐬝</orth>
          <form type="translit">
            <orth>at̰</orth>
          </form>
          <def>then; but</def>
        </item>
        <item xml:id="cog_chu_a" xml:lang="chu" type="cognate">
          <orth>а</orth>
          <form type="translit">
            <orth>a</orth>
          </form>
          <def>and; but</def>
        </item>
        <item xml:id="cog_chu_ze" xml:lang="chu" type="cognate">
          <orth>же</orth>
          <form type="translit">
            <orth>že</orth>
          </form>
          <def>but, indeed, precisely</def>
        </item>
        <item xml:id="cog_grc_ge" xml:lang="grc" type="cognate">
          <orth>γε</orth>
          <form type="translit">
            <orth>ge</orth>
          </form>
          <def>at least, just, precisely; indeed</def>
        </item>
        <item xml:id="cog_ine-x-proto_at" xml:lang="ine-x-proto" type="etymon">
          <orth>*át</orth>
          <def>but, yet</def>
        </item>
        <item xml:id="cog_lat_at" xml:lang="lat" type="cognate">
          <orth>at</orth>
          <def>but, yet</def>
        </item>
        <item xml:id="cog_lit_ge" xml:lang="lit" type="cognate">
          <orth>-ge</orth>
          <def type="function">emphatic particle</def>
        </item>
        <item xml:id="cog_lit_o" xml:lang="lit" type="cognate">
          <orth>o</orth>
          <def>and; but</def>
        </item>
        <item xml:id="cog_san_atha" xml:lang="san" type="cognate">
          <orth>अथ</orth>
          <form type="translit">
            <orth>átha</orth>
          </form>
          <def>then; but; now</def>
        </item>
        <item xml:id="cog_ine-x-proto_ge" xml:lang="ine-x-proto" type="etymon">
          <orth>*ge</orth>
          <def>indeed, at any rate, in fact</def>
        </item>
      </list>
      <div type="dictionary">
        <entry xml:id="pgmc_ak" type="conjunction" corresp="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/ak">
          <form type="lemma">
            <orth>ak</orth>
            <pron notation="ipa">ˈɑk</pron>
            <form type="runic">
              <orth>ᚨᚲ</orth>
            </form>
          </form>
          <gramGrp>
            <pos>conjunction</pos>
          </gramGrp>
          <sense n="1">
            <def>but, however; rather, but instead, especially introducing a correction or contrast</def>
          </sense>
          <etym>
            <seg type="p">Probably from pre-Germanic <mentioned xml:lang="gmw-x-proto">*at-ge</mentioned>, from Proto-Indo-European <mentioned xml:lang="ine-x-proto" target="#cog_ine-x-proto_at"><ref target="#cog_ine-x-proto_at">*át</ref></mentioned> + <mentioned xml:lang="" target="#cog_ine-x-proto_ge"><ref target="#cog_ine-x-proto_ge">*ge</ref></mentioned>, originally ‘but indeed’ or ‘but rather’. The development presumably involved assimilation in the consonant cluster and subsequent degemination: <mentioned xml:lang="gmw-x-proto">*at-ge</mentioned> &gt; *<mentioned xml:lang="gmw-x-proto">aþke</mentioned> &gt; <mentioned xml:lang="gmw-x-proto">akke</mentioned> &gt; <mentioned xml:lang="gmw-x-proto" target="#pgmc_ak"><ref target="#pgmc_ak">*ak</ref></mentioned>, although the exact phonological sequence is uncertain and this particular assimilation has no known parallel in Germanic. Cognates of the first particle include Latin <mentioned xml:lang="lat" target="#cog_lat_at"><ref target="#cog_lat_at">at</ref></mentioned>, Vedic Sanskrit <mentioned xml:lang="san" target="#cog_san_atha"><ref target="#cog_san_atha">अथ</ref></mentioned>, Avestan <mentioned xml:lang="ave" target="#cog_ave_at"><ref target="#cog_ave_at">𐬀𐬝</ref></mentioned>, Old Church Slavonic <mentioned xml:lang="chu" target="#cog_chu_a"><ref target="#cog_chu_a">а</ref></mentioned>, and Lithuanian <mentioned xml:lang="lit" target="#cog_lit_o"><ref target="#cog_lit_o">o</ref></mentioned>, while those of the second particle include Ancient Greek <mentioned xml:lang="grc" target="#cog_grc_ge"><ref target="#cog_grc_ge">γε</ref></mentioned>, Old Church Slavonic <mentioned xml:lang="chu" target="#cog_chu_ze"><ref target="#cog_chu_ze">же</ref></mentioned>, and Lithuanian <mentioned xml:lang="lit" target="#cog_lit_ge"><ref target="#cog_lit_ge">-ge</ref></mentioned> <bibl corresp="#dunkel2014" n="87–88, 279–80">Dunkel 2014: 87–88, 279–80</bibl>.</seg>
          </etym>
          <re type="descendants">
            <list>
              <item>
                <form type="descendant">
                  <lang>Proto-West Germanic</lang>
                  <orth>*ak</orth>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Old Saxon</lang>
                    <orth>ak</orth>
                  </form>
                </form>
              </item>
              <item>
                <form type="descendant">
                  <lang>Proto-West Germanic</lang>
                  <orth>*ak</orth>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Old Dutch</lang>
                    <orth>*ak, *ok, *oh</orth>
                    <form type="descendant">
                      <lang>Middle Dutch</lang>
                      <orth>och</orth>
                    </form>
                  </form>
                </form>
              </item>
              <item>
                <form type="descendant">
                  <lang>Proto-West Germanic</lang>
                  <orth>*ak</orth>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Old English</lang>
                    <orth>ac, ah, oc</orth>
                    <form type="descendant">
                      <lang>Middle English</lang>
                      <orth>ac, ak, ah, ach, oc, occ, ok, auh, auch, auȝ</orth>
                      <form type="descendant">
                        <lang>English</lang>
                        <orth>ac, ake</orth>
                      </form>
                      <form type="descendant">
                        <lang>Scots</lang>
                        <orth>ac</orth>
                      </form>
                    </form>
                  </form>
                </form>
              </item>
              <item>
                <form type="descendant">
                  <lang>Proto-West Germanic</lang>
                  <orth>*ak</orth>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Old Frisian</lang>
                    <orth>*ak, *ok</orth>
                    <form type="descendant">
                      <lang>Saterland Frisian</lang>
                      <orth>uk</orth>
                    </form>
                    <form type="descendant">
                      <lang>West Frisian</lang>
                      <orth>ek</orth>
                    </form>
                  </form>
                </form>
              </item>
              <item>
                <form type="descendant">
                  <lang>Proto-West Germanic</lang>
                  <orth>*ak</orth>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Old High German</lang>
                    <orth>oh</orth>
                    <form type="descendant">
                      <lang>Middle High German</lang>
                      <orth>och, ouch</orth>
                      <form type="descendant">
                        <lang>German</lang>
                        <orth>auch</orth>
                      </form>
                    </form>
                  </form>
                </form>
              </item>
              <item>
                <form type="descendant">
                  <lang>Gothic</lang>
                  <orth>𐌰𐌺 (ak)</orth>
                </form>
              </item>
            </list>
          </re>
        </entry>
      </div>
    </body>
  </text>
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