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    <fileDesc>
      <titleStmt>
        <title type="main">Wurdahuzdą: Proto-Germanic dictionary — *under</title>
        <author>Scott K. Shay</author>
      </titleStmt>
      <publicationStmt>
        <publisher>Wardja Press</publisher>
        <date when="2026-10-01"/>
        <idno type="URL">https://protogermanic.org/pgmc_under</idno>
      </publicationStmt>
      <sourceDesc>
        <p>Single-entry extract from the dictionary. Cross-references to other entries point to their identifiers in the full dictionary.</p>
      </sourceDesc>
    </fileDesc>
  </teiHeader>
  <text>
    <body>
      <list type="cognates">
        <item xml:id="cog_ine-x-proto_h1nter" xml:lang="ine-x-proto" type="etymon">
          <orth>*h₁n̥tér</orth>
          <def>inside</def>
        </item>
        <item xml:id="cog_san_adhas" xml:lang="san" type="cognate">
          <orth>अधस्</orth>
          <form type="translit">
            <orth>adhás</orth>
          </form>
          <def>below</def>
        </item>
      </list>
      <div type="dictionary">
        <entry xml:id="pgmc_under" type="preposition" corresp="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/under">
          <form type="lemma">
            <orth>under</orth>
            <pron notation="ipa">ˈun.der</pron>
            <form type="runic">
              <orth>ᚢᚾᛞᛖᚱ</orth>
            </form>
          </form>
          <gramGrp>
            <pos>preposition</pos>
          </gramGrp>
          <sense n="1">
            <def>among, between</def>
          </sense>
          <sense n="2">
            <def>under, beneath (location)</def>
          </sense>
          <sense n="3">
            <def>under (direction)</def>
          </sense>
          <etym>
            <seg type="p">From a merger of two originally distinct prepositions as a result of Verner's law: Pre-Germanic *untér and *undʰér, from Proto-Indo-European <mentioned xml:lang="ine-x-proto" target="#cog_ine-x-proto_h1nter"><ref target="#cog_ine-x-proto_h1nter">*h₁n̥tér</ref></mentioned> (‘inside’), from which also Latin inter; and *(H)n̥dʰér (‘under’), whence Latin īnfrā, Sanskrit <mentioned xml:lang="san" target="#cog_san_adhas"><ref target="#cog_san_adhas">अधस्</ref></mentioned> (adhás, ‘below’), Ossetian дӕлӕ (dælæ, ‘below’).</seg>
          </etym>
          <re type="descendants">
            <list>
              <item>
                <form type="descendant">
                  <lang>Proto-West Germanic</lang>
                  <orth>*undar</orth>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Old Dutch</lang>
                    <orth>under</orth>
                    <form type="descendant">
                      <lang>Middle Dutch</lang>
                      <orth>onder</orth>
                      <form type="descendant">
                        <lang>Limburgish</lang>
                        <orth>ónger</orth>
                      </form>
                    </form>
                  </form>
                </form>
              </item>
              <item>
                <form type="descendant">
                  <lang>Proto-West Germanic</lang>
                  <orth>*undar</orth>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Old Dutch</lang>
                    <orth>under</orth>
                    <form type="descendant">
                      <lang>Middle Dutch</lang>
                      <orth>onder</orth>
                      <form type="descendant">
                        <lang>Dutch</lang>
                        <orth>onder</orth>
                        <form type="descendant">
                          <lang>Afrikaans</lang>
                          <orth>onder</orth>
                        </form>
                        <form type="descendant">
                          <lang>Aukan</lang>
                          <orth>ondoo</orth>
                        </form>
                        <form type="descendant">
                          <lang>Berbice Creole Dutch</lang>
                          <orth>ondro</orth>
                        </form>
                        <form type="descendant">
                          <lang>Negerhollands</lang>
                          <orth>onder, ondu, undu</orth>
                        </form>
                      </form>
                    </form>
                  </form>
                </form>
              </item>
              <item>
                <form type="descendant">
                  <lang>Proto-West Germanic</lang>
                  <orth>*undar</orth>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Old English</lang>
                    <orth>under</orth>
                    <form type="descendant">
                      <lang>Middle English</lang>
                      <orth>under, vnder, onder</orth>
                      <form type="descendant">
                        <lang>English</lang>
                        <orth>under</orth>
                      </form>
                      <form type="descendant">
                        <lang>Scots</lang>
                        <orth>unner</orth>
                      </form>
                      <form type="descendant">
                        <lang>Yola</lang>
                        <orth>unnere</orth>
                      </form>
                    </form>
                  </form>
                </form>
              </item>
              <item>
                <form type="descendant">
                  <lang>Proto-West Germanic</lang>
                  <orth>*undar</orth>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Old Frisian</lang>
                    <orth>under</orth>
                    <form type="descendant">
                      <lang>North Frisian</lang>
                      <orth>öner</orth>
                    </form>
                    <form type="descendant">
                      <lang>Saterland Frisian</lang>
                      <orth>unner</orth>
                    </form>
                    <form type="descendant">
                      <lang>West Frisian</lang>
                      <orth>ûnder</orth>
                    </form>
                  </form>
                </form>
              </item>
              <item>
                <form type="descendant">
                  <lang>Proto-West Germanic</lang>
                  <orth>*undar</orth>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Old High German</lang>
                    <orth>untar, undar, under</orth>
                    <form type="descendant">
                      <lang>Middle High German</lang>
                      <orth>under</orth>
                      <form type="descendant">
                        <lang>German</lang>
                        <orth>unter</orth>
                      </form>
                      <form type="descendant">
                        <lang>Hunsrik</lang>
                        <orth>unne</orth>
                      </form>
                      <form type="descendant">
                        <lang>Luxembourgish</lang>
                        <orth>ënner</orth>
                      </form>
                      <form type="descendant">
                        <lang>Yiddish</lang>
                        <orth>אונטער (unter)</orth>
                      </form>
                    </form>
                  </form>
                </form>
              </item>
              <item>
                <form type="descendant">
                  <lang>Proto-West Germanic</lang>
                  <orth>*undar</orth>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Old Saxon</lang>
                    <orth>undar</orth>
                    <form type="descendant">
                      <lang>Middle Low German</lang>
                      <orth>under, ünder, ynder</orth>
                      <form type="descendant">
                        <lang>Low German</lang>
                        <orth>ünner, ünder, onder</orth>
                      </form>
                      <form type="descendant">
                        <lang>Plautdietsch</lang>
                        <orth>unja</orth>
                      </form>
                    </form>
                  </form>
                </form>
              </item>
              <item>
                <form type="descendant">
                  <lang>Old Norse</lang>
                  <orth>undir</orth>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Danish</lang>
                    <orth>under</orth>
                  </form>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Faroese</lang>
                    <orth>undir</orth>
                  </form>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Gutnish</lang>
                    <orth>undar, unda, undur</orth>
                  </form>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Icelandic</lang>
                    <orth>undir</orth>
                  </form>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Norn</lang>
                    <orth>onjder, onder</orth>
                  </form>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Norwegian Bokmål</lang>
                    <orth>under</orth>
                  </form>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Norwegian Nynorsk</lang>
                    <orth>under</orth>
                  </form>
                </form>
              </item>
              <item>
                <form type="descendant">
                  <lang>Old Norse</lang>
                  <orth>undir</orth>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Old Swedish</lang>
                    <orth>undir</orth>
                    <form type="descendant">
                      <lang>Swedish</lang>
                      <orth>under</orth>
                    </form>
                  </form>
                </form>
              </item>
              <item>
                <form type="descendant">
                  <lang>Gothic</lang>
                  <orth>𐌿𐌽𐌳𐌰𐍂 (undar)</orth>
                </form>
              </item>
              <item>
                <form type="descendant">
                  <lang>Old Galician-Portuguese</lang>
                  <orth>unter</orth>
                  <form type="descendant">
                    <lang>Galician</lang>
                    <orth>unter, ontre</orth>
                  </form>
                </form>
              </item>
            </list>
          </re>
        </entry>
      </div>
    </body>
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